The Shape of the Psalter

The book of Psalms holds teaching that is new, coming after the law that was given through Moses; and so it is the second book of teaching after the writings of Moses. After the death of Moses and Joshua, and after the judges, David arose — a man counted worthy to be called the father of the Savior. He was the first to give the Hebrews a new kind of psalm-singing, and by it he did away with the rules Moses had laid down about sacrifice and brought in a new way of worshiping God, with hymns and shouts of praise. He taught many other things as well, beyond the law of Moses, all through his ministry. This is what makes the book holy, and this is its usefulness. [a]

Now here is the account to be given of its title. Since most of our brothers and sisters who believe in Christ think this book is David’s, and head it “Psalms of David,” we have to say what has come down to us about it. The Hebrews give the book the title “Sephra Thelim,” and in the Acts of the Apostles it is called the Book of Psalms — the words there are, “as it is written in the Book of Psalms” — but no author’s name is found in the book’s title. The reason is that what is written there is not one man’s words but the words of several men together. Ezra, so tradition says, gathered into one volume after the captivity the psalms of several writers, or rather their words, since they are not all psalms. So David’s name stands over some of them, Solomon’s over others, Asaph’s over others. Some belong to Jeduthun, and besides these there are others belonging to the sons of Korah, and even to Moses. Since they are the words of so many writers gathered together like this, no one who understands the matter could say they are David’s alone.

As for the psalms that carry no heading at all, we have to ask whom we ought to assign them to. Why is even the simplest heading missing from them — the sort that runs “A psalm of David,” or just “Of David,” with nothing added? My own view is that wherever that heading stands alone, what is written is neither a psalm nor a song, but some kind of utterance made under the guidance of the Holy Spirit and set down for the benefit of anyone able to understand it. But the opinion of a certain Hebrew on these untitled ones has reached me. He held that where many stand with no heading, preceded by one headed “Of David,” all of them should be counted David’s too. And if that is so, it follows that the untitled ones belong to the writers whom the headings rightly name as the authors of the psalms just before them. [e]

This book of Psalms before us has also been called by the prophet the Psalter, because — so they say — the psaltery is the one instrument among them all that gives its sound back from above when the strings are struck, and not from beneath, as the others do. So then, in order that those who understand it may be eager to follow out what such a name suggests, and may look upward as well, which is the direction its music comes from — for this reason he called it the Psalter. For the whole of it is the voice and the utterance of the most Holy Spirit.

Let us ask further why there are a hundred and fifty psalms. That the number fifty is holy is plain from the days of the great festival of Pentecost, which stands for release from labor and for joy — which is why no fasting and no bending of the knee is appointed for those days. For this is a sign of the great assembly that is being kept for the times to come. There was a shadow of those times in the land of Israel in the year the Hebrews call “Jobel,” the Jubilee, which is the fiftieth year by count and brings with it freedom for the slave, release from debt, and the like. The holy Gospel also knows the forgiveness of the number fifty, and of the number that is its kin and stands beside it, five hundred; for it is not without purpose that we are given there the forgiveness of fifty denarii and of five hundred. So it was fitting that the hymns to God for the destruction of enemies, and in thanksgiving for the goodness of God, should hold not simply one set of fifty, but three such sets, for the name of Father, and Son, and Holy Spirit. [f]

The number fifty, moreover, contains seven sevens, a sabbath of sabbaths; and over and above those full sabbaths a new beginning in the eighth, of a genuinely new rest that lies beyond the sabbaths. Let anyone who is able watch how this is carried out in the Psalms — with more than human accuracy, indeed — so as to find the reason in each case, as we shall now set them out. [h]

It is not without purpose, for instance, that the eighth psalm carries the heading “On the winepresses,” since it takes in the ripeness of the fruit in the eighth; for the time to enjoy the fruit of the true vine could not come before the eighth. Again, the second psalm headed “On the winepresses” is the eightieth, which holds another eight — this time in the tens. The eighty-third is made up by joining two holy numbers: the eight in the tens, and the three in the ones. And the fiftieth psalm is a prayer for the forgiveness of sins, and a confession. For as, according to the Gospel, the fiftieth obtained forgiveness — which confirms that understanding of the jubilee — so the man who offers such petitions, confessing fully, hopes to obtain forgiveness in no other number than the fiftieth.

And again, there are certain others that are called “Songs of Degrees,” fifteen in number, which was also the number of the steps of the temple, and which show by that, perhaps, that the steps are taken in within the number seven and the number eight. These songs of degrees begin after the hundred and twentieth psalm, which is called simply “a psalm,” as the more accurate copies give it; and this is the number of the full span of a man’s life. The hundredth psalm, which begins “I will sing of mercy and judgment, Lord,” takes in the life of the holy man in fellowship with God. And the hundred and fiftieth ends with these words: “Let everything that has breath praise the Lord.”

But since, as we have already said, doing this for every psalm and finding the reasons is very difficult and too much for human nature to accomplish, we will content ourselves with these things as an outline. Let us only add this: the psalms that deal with historical matter are not found in the order the history happened. The one reason for that is to be found in the numbers the psalms are arranged by. For instance, the history in the fifty-first comes before the history in the fiftieth. Everybody admits that Doeg the Edomite’s slandering of David to Saul came before the sin with the wife of Uriah; and yet there is good reason why the history that ought to come second is placed first, since, as we said, the place about forgiveness has a kinship with the number fifty. So the man who is not worthy of forgiveness goes past the number fifty, as Doeg the Edomite does — for the fifty-first is the psalm that treats of him. The third psalm stands in the same position, since it was written when David was fleeing from the face of his son Absalom; and so, as everyone knows who reads the books of Kings, it should properly come after the fifty-first and the fiftieth. [l]

And if anyone wants to give further attention to these and similar matters, he will find more exact explanations of the history for himself, and of the headings and the order of the psalms.

It is likely, too, that a similar account is to be given of this fact: that David alone of the prophets prophesied with an instrument, the one the Greeks call the “psaltery” and the Hebrews the “nabla,” which is the only musical instrument that is perfectly straight, with no curve in it. Its sound does not come from the lower parts, as happens with the lute and certain other instruments, but from the upper. In the lute and the lyre the bronze gives its sound back from underneath when it is struck; but this psaltery has the source of its notes above, so that we too may train ourselves to seek the things above, and not let the pleasure of melody drag us down to the passions of the flesh. [n]

And I think this truth as well was signified to us deeply and clearly, in a prophetic way, in the building of the instrument: that those who have souls well ordered and trained have the road open to the things above. And again, an instrument that has the source of its sweet sound in its upper parts may be taken as a picture of the body of Christ and of his holy ones — the only instrument that keeps perfectly straight; for “he committed no sin, and no deceit was found in his mouth.” This is indeed an instrument, harmonious, tuneful, well ordered, which let in no human discord and did nothing out of measure, but kept, as it were, harmony with the Father in everything. For as he says: “The one who is from the earth is of the earth and speaks of the earth; the one who comes from heaven bears witness to what he has seen and heard.”

Since there are “psalms,” and “songs,” and “psalms of song,” and “songs of psalmody,” it remains for us to discuss the difference between them. We think, then, that the “psalms” are the ones simply played on an instrument, with no voice joining in, and composed for the instrument’s own melody; that those are called “songs” which are carried by the voice together with the music; that they are called “psalms of song” when the voice takes the lead while the fitting sound accompanies it, played harmoniously on the instruments; and “songs of psalmody” when the instrument takes the lead while the voice comes second and follows the music of the strings. So much for the plain sense of these terms. [q]

But as to the hidden meaning: it would be a “psalm” when, by striking the instrument — that is, the body — with good deeds, we succeed in doing what is good, though we are not yet accomplished in contemplation. It would be a “song” when, by turning over the mysteries of the truth apart from what is practical, and giving them our full assent, we have the noblest thoughts about God and his sayings, while knowledge gives us light and wisdom shines out in our souls. It would be a “song of psalmody” when, with good action taking the lead — as the word says, “If you want wisdom, keep the commands, and the Lord will give her to you” — we come to understand wisdom at the same time, and are counted worthy by God to know the truth of things that had been kept hidden from us until then. And it would be a “psalm of song” when, by turning over in the light of wisdom some of the harder questions about conduct, we first become prudent in what we do, and then are able as well to say what is to be done, and when, and how.

And perhaps this is why the headings at the beginning nowhere contain the word “songs,” but only “psalm” or “psalms”: because the holy man does not begin with contemplation. When he has become, in a simple way, a believer who believes rightly, he gives himself to the actions that have to be done. This is also why there are many “songs” at the end; and wherever the word “degrees” appears, we do not find the word “psalm” there, either by itself or with anything added, but only “songs.” For in the degrees — the ascents — the holy ones will be engaged in nothing but contemplation alone. And let the account we have offered, following the hints given in the version of the Seventy, be enough on this subject in general.

But again, since we found in the Seventy, and in Theodotion, and in Symmachus, the word diapsalma inserted in some psalms — and not a few of them — we tried to make out whether the men who put it there meant to mark a change at those places in rhythm or melody, or some shift in the manner of teaching, or in the thought, or in the force of the language. It is not found, however, in Aquila or in the Hebrew; there, instead of diapsalma — a passage of instrumental music in between — we find the word aei, “always.” [u]

And do not let this fact escape you either, learned reader: the Hebrews also divided the Psalter into five books, so that it might be a second Pentateuch. From Psalm 1 to 40 they reckoned one book; from 41 to 71 a second; from 72 to 88 they counted a third; from 89 to 105 a fourth; and from 106 to 150 they made up the fifth. For they judged that each psalm closing with the words “Blessed be the Lord. Amen, amen” formed the end of a book.

And in these books we have “prayer,” which is a petition offered to God for whatever is needed; and the “vow,” that is, an engagement; and the “hymn,” which is the song of blessing to God for benefits received; and “praise,” or “extolling,” which is the lauding of the wonders of God. For extolling is nothing else but praise raised to its highest.